This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowReprints and Permissions
Right arrow Copyright Information
Right arrow Books from ASM Press
Right arrow MicrobeWorld
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Motomura, K.
Right arrow Articles by Hu, W.-S.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Motomura, K.
Right arrow Articles by Hu, W.-S.

 Previous Article  |  Next Article 

Journal of Virology, February 2008, p. 1923-1933, Vol. 82, No. 4
0022-538X/08/$08.00+0     doi:10.1128/JVI.01937-07
Copyright © 2008, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.

Genetic Recombination between Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) and HIV-2, Two Distinct Human Lentiviruses{triangledown}

Kazushi Motomura, Jianbo Chen, and Wei-Shau Hu*

HIV Drug Resistance Program, National Cancer Institute at Frederick, Frederick, Maryland 21702

Received 4 September 2007/ Accepted 19 November 2007


arrow
ABSTRACT
 
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and HIV-2 are genetically distinct viruses that each can cause AIDS. Approximately 1 million people are infected with both HIV-1 and HIV-2. Additionally, these two viruses use the same receptor and coreceptors and can therefore infect the same target cell populations. To explore potential genetic interactions, we first examined whether RNAs from HIV-1 and HIV-2 can be copackaged into the same virion. We used modified near-full-length viruses that each contained a green fluorescent protein gene (gfp) with a different inactivating mutation. Thus, a functional gfp could be reconstituted via recombination, which was used to detect the copackaging of HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNAs. The GFP-positive (GFP+) phenotype was detected in approximately 0.2% of the infection events, which was 35-fold lower than the intrasubtype HIV-1 rates. We isolated and characterized 54 GFP+ single-cell clones and determined that all of them contained proviruses with reconstituted gfp. We then mapped the general structures of the recombinant viruses and characterized the recombination junctions by DNA sequencing. We observed several different recombination patterns, including those that had crossovers only in gfp. The most common hybrid genomes had heterologous long terminal repeats. Although infrequent, crossovers in the viral sequences were also identified. Taken together, our study demonstrates that HIV-1 and HIV-2 can recombine, albeit at low frequencies. These observations indicate that multiple factors are likely to restrict the generation of viable hybrid HIV-1 and HIV-2 viruses. However, considering the large coinfected human population and the high viral load in patients, these rare events could provide the basis for the generation of novel human immunodeficiency viruses.


arrow
INTRODUCTION
 
Retroviruses are unique among virus families in that they package two copies of the viral genome into one particle, with each RNA genome containing the complete information needed for viral replication (15, 31). One of the consequences of this unique feature is that frequent recombination can occur during reverse transcription of the viral genome to generate a hybrid DNA containing portions of the genetic information from each of the copackaged RNAs (26). Although recombination can occur through other means, such as DNA recombination, viral RNAs have to be copackaged into the same virus particle in order for retroviral recombination to occur during reverse transcription (26).

Recombination plays important roles in the evolution of retroviruses. Recombination can occur between highly related viruses to reassort sequences, thereby increasing the diversity of the population and allowing the emergence of variants that are most fit for the particular selection pressures at a given time (2, 11, 13, 16, 27, 28, 33, 37, 39-41, 47). Recombination can also occur between genetically similar viruses that are further apart in sequence identity than those in a viral population. Examples of these events are recombination between different subtypes of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) (10, 20, 23) and recombination between endogenous and exogenous viruses related to murine leukemia virus (17, 34). On rare occasions, recombination can also occur between genetically distinct but distantly related retroviruses to generate a novel chimeric virus. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that these events occurred in the past to generate novel simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs). An example of the progeny of such recombination is the SIV that infects chimpanzees (SIVcpz) (5), the precursor of HIV-1 (19); SIVcpz is a chimera with the pol gene from SIV that infects red-capped mangabeys and the env gene from SIV that infects greater spot-nosed monkeys. It is thought that perhaps recombination occurred in chimpanzees dually infected with SIV that infects red-capped mangabeys and SIV that infects greater spot-nosed monkeys to generate a novel chimeric virus, SIVcpz.

Dual infection of distinct lentiviruses, namely, HIV-1 and HIV-2, also occurs in certain human populations. Although HIV-1 and HIV-2 can both cause AIDS (7, 12), these viruses originated from two different SIVs that were transmitted to humans by independent zoonotic events (44). The precursors of HIV-1 and HIV-2 are genetically distinct SIVs that inhabit different natural hosts: HIV-1 is from SIVcpz, whereas HIV-2 is from SIV that infects sooty mangabeys in nature (24). Currently, HIV-1 infection is distributed worldwide, with an estimated 40 million people infected. The distribution of HIV-2 is more limited and is located mostly in West Africa and parts of India (29, 32). Most of the geographic regions that have prevalent HIV-2 infections also have an HIV-1 epidemic. Infection by one of the AIDS viruses does not protect the host from the other virus (45); therefore, coinfection is not infrequent in certain geographic areas (21, 22). It was estimated that 1 million people are dually infected with these two viruses (3). Additionally, HIV-1 and HIV-2 use the same receptor and coreceptors for entry into cells (25, 38, 43) and thus target the same cell populations in the host. These properties suggest that in the dually infected population, it is likely that some cells can be infected by both HIV-1 and HIV-2, thereby providing opportunities for these two viruses to interact with each other.

HIV-1 and HIV-2 have similar genetic structures; however, they exhibit significant sequence variation. For example, the two virus strains used in this study contain only 55% nucleotide sequence identity in the viral genome and 54%, 55%, and 35% amino acid sequence identity in gag, pol, and env, respectively. Despite the sequence divergence, interactions between HIV-1 and HIV-2 in several experimental systems have been reported. It has been shown that HIV-2 can suppress HIV-1 expression by competing for the binding of Tat proteins (4, 9). There are other examples of cross-recognition of the viral elements. For example, HIV-1 proteins can recognize and package HIV-2 RNA, albeit at a lower efficiency than that for packaging homologous RNA. This recognition is nonreciprocal; HIV-2 proteins do not specifically package HIV-1 RNA (30). Recently, we demonstrated that HIV-1 and HIV-2 gag mutants can complement each other's function to rescue virus replication; furthermore, the Gag proteins from these two viruses can coassemble into the same virion (8). Gag proteins interact with viral RNA to specifically encapsidate full-length viral RNA into virions (6, 35). The coassembly of HIV-1 and HIV-2 Gag suggests that HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNAs can be copackaged into the same virus particles. If copackaging occurs, it is possible for recombination to take place during reverse transcription, which could generate a chimeric viral genome.

In this report, we sought to determine the genetic interactions between HIV-1 and HIV-2. We first examined whether HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNAs can be copackaged into the same virus particle by examining whether recombination can occur between a marker gene encoded by an HIV-1 vector and that encoded by an HIV-2 vector. After observing such events, we then examined whether recombination can occur in the viral genome of these two viruses and found that these recombination events do occur, albeit at low frequencies. These results reveal the potential and the barriers to recombination between genetically distinct viruses and provide insights into retroviral evolution, including the pathogens causing the current AIDS epidemic.


arrow
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 
Plasmids used in the study. HIV-1-based vectors pON-H0 and pON-T6 were described previously (41). Briefly, these vectors were derived from pNL4-3 and carry functional gag-pol, tat, and rev genes. Each vector contains two marker genes inserted into nef; pON-H0 carries the mouse heat-stable antigen (HSA) gene (hsa) followed by the internal ribosomal entry site (IRES) from encephalomyocarditis virus and the green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene (gfp) with seven substitutions to generate three stop codons, the last of which is 15 bp downstream of the translation start site. Vector pON-T6 carries a mouse Thy1.2 gene (thy) followed by the IRES and gfp; gfp has a substitution and a +1 inactivating frameshift, which is 603 bp from the translation start site. The reversion rates for both of these inactivating mutations are estimated to be very low (26, 36) and exceed the sensitivity of our assay. For clarity, pON-H0 is referred to as 1-H0G, whereas pON-T6 is referred to as 1-T6G.

HIV-2-based pHIV2-H0G and pHIV2-T6G were previously described (11) and were derived from HIV-2 ROD-12. These vectors contain functional gag-pol, vif, vpx, tat, and rev genes. Additionally, they contain the same markers and mutations in gfp as the HIV-1 vectors: hsa-IRES-gfp for HIV-2-H0G with the above-mentioned inactivating mutation 15 bp from the gfp translational start codon and thy-IRES-gfp for HIV-2-T6G with the above-mentioned inactivating mutation 603 bp from the gfp translational start codon. For clarity, pHIV2-H0G and pHIV2-T6G are referred to as 2-H0G and 2-T6G, respectively.

Plasmid pIIINL(AD8)env, a kind gift from Eric Freed, was derived from the AD8 strain of HIV-1 (18) and expresses HIV-1 Env, which uses CCR5 as a coreceptor. Plasmid pHCMV-G expresses the vesicular stomatitis virus G glycoprotein (46).

Cell lines, transfection, infection, and flow cytometry. Hut/CCR5 is a human T-cell line; 293T is a human embryonic fibroblast cell line. Hut/CCR5 cells were maintained in RPMI 1640 medium, whereas 293T cells were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium, both supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum and antibiotics. All cell lines were grown in a humidified 37°C incubator with 5% CO2. Transfections were performed using the calcium phosphate method (42). Viral supernatants were harvested and clarified through a 0.45-µm-pore-size filter to remove cellular debris prior to infection. Infected cells were stained with phycoerythrin-conjugated anti-HSA antibody (BD Biosciences) and allophycocyanin-conjugated anti-Thy1.2 antibody (eBioscience). Flow cytometry analyses were performed using a FACSCalibur system, and data from flow cytometry were analyzed with Flowjo software (Tree Star). Cell sorting was performed using a FACSVantage SE system with the FACSDiVa digital option (BD Biosciences).

Generation of producer cells, recombination assay, and isolation of cells containing recombinant proviruses. To measure recombination between HIV-1 and HIV-2, we generated producer cell lines containing proviruses derived from HIV-1 and HIV-2. A vector plasmid and pHCMV-G were cotransfected into 293T cells. Viruses were harvested and used to infect fresh 293T cells at a low multiplicity of infection (MOI), generally between 0.1 and 0.05. Infected cells were enriched by cell sorting. These cells were then infected at a low MOI with a second virus derived from a different HIV that carries another marker. Cells containing both HIV-1 and HIV-2 proviruses were enriched by cell sorting until more than 95% of the cells expressed both HSA and Thy.

To measure the recombination rate, producer cells were transfected with plasmid pIIINL(AD8)env, which expresses HIV-1 Env. Viruses were harvested and used to infect Hut/CCR5 cells; infected cells were processed and analyzed by flow cytometry. The expression of HSA, Thy, or GFP indicated that the cells were infected, whereas GFP expression indicated that the proviruses in the infected cells had undergone recombination. The numbers of infected cells and cells that contained recombinant viruses were converted to MOI by Poisson distribution as previously described (41). The GFP MOI divided by the infection MOI provided the recombination rate.

Single GFP-positive (GFP+) cell clones were isolated by cell sorting and expanded. Flow cytometry was performed to identify the expression of HSA and Thy; cell clones expressing both Thy and HSA were discarded, whereas cell clones expressing GFP and either Thy or HSA were analyzed. DNA was isolated from these cell clones and used as the template for PCR amplification of the proviral genomes.

Characterization of recombinant proviral structures. The gfp genes of the proviruses in isolated cell clones were first amplified using a forward primer in IRES and a reverse primer in the nef gene of either HIV-1 or HIV-2. These PCR fragments were characterized by restriction enzyme mapping and DNA sequencing. The sequence identity of parts of the recombinant proviruses was determined by eight sets of PCRs designed to amplify one but not both HIV-1 and HIV-2 sequences. Four of the reactions amplified a segment of the HIV-1 U5, nucleocapsid, reverse transcriptase (RT), or env region, whereas the other four reactions amplified a segment of HIV-2 R, matrix, integrase, or env. A large portion of the recombinant genomes was amplified by long PCR (Expand long template PCR system; Roche) with primers in gag and the long terminal repeat (LTR). These PCR products were characterized by restriction enzyme mapping and/or DNA sequencing.


arrow
RESULTS
 
System used to examine whether HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNAs can be copackaged into the same virion. Although it has been shown that HIV-1 proteins can package HIV-2 RNA and that HIV-1 and HIV-2 Gag proteins can coassemble into the same virion, it is not known whether the RNAs from these two viruses can be copackaged into the same virion. Retroviral recombination occurs during reverse transcription of the two copackaged RNAs; hence, recombination can be used to demonstrate the copackaging of viral RNAs. However, the HIV-1 and HIV-2 genomes are quite diverse, which could reduce the efficiency of homologous recombination. To examine whether HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNAs can be copackaged into the same virion, we used two near-full-length HIV-1 and HIV-2 vectors that each carry a mutated gfp gene, which is used as a surrogate target to detect recombination events. The structures of the HIV-1 and HIV-2 vectors are shown in Fig. 1A. Briefly, HIV-1-based vector 1-H0G expresses functional gag-pol, tat, and rev. Additionally, 1-H0G contains a functional hsa gene, IRES, and a nonfunctional gfp gene in the nef reading frame; the inactivating mutation is located at the 5' end of the gene. HIV-2-based vector 2-T6G expresses functional gag-pol, vif, vpx, tat, and rev. In its nef reading frame, 2-T6G also carries a functional thy, IRES, and a nonfunctional gfp with the inactivating mutation located at the 3' end of the gene. The distance between the two inactivating mutations in gfp is 588 nucleotides (nt). If HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNAs can be copackaged and recombination can occur within this 588-nt sequence, then a functional gfp can be reconstituted during this process. We have also used another pair of vectors, 1-T6G and 2-H0G, which are structurally identical to 1-H0G and 2-T6G, respectively, except that the encoded marker genes were switched (Fig. 1A). A functional gfp can also be reconstituted during recombination of this second pair of viruses.


Figure 1
View larger version (16K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 1. System used to study recombination between HIV-1 and HIV-2. (A) HIV-1- and HIV-2-based near-full-length vectors used to study recombination. HIV-1 sequences are shown as white boxes, whereas HIV-2 sequences are shown as black boxes. In all constructs, nef was inactivated by marker insertions. Asterisks indicate the inactivating mutations in gfp. {Delta}env, env with inactivating deletion. (B) Protocol used to study recombination in one round of viral replication.

DNA recombination can occur during transfection by mechanisms distinct from those of retroviral recombination. To ensure that we were examining events occurring during viral replication and not those occurring during DNA transfection, we introduced the vectors into virus producer cells via infection rather than transfection. Producer cells containing HIV-1 and HIV-2 proviruses were generated by sequentially infecting the cells at a low MOI to reduce the presence of cells containing multiple proviruses from one vector (Fig. 1B). Each producer cell line is a pool of doubly infected cells that contains approximately 100,000 independent infectious events, and more than 90% of the cells express the HSA and Thy markers and therefore are infected with both viruses.

We generated four independent cell lines, two containing 1-T6G and 2-H0G and two containing 1-H0G and 2-T6G. Neither the HIV-1 nor the HIV-2 vectors expressed functional Env; to generate infectious viruses, we transfected virus producer cells with a plasmid that expresses the HIV-1 CCR5-tropic Env. The resulting viruses were harvested, clarified, and used to infect human Hut/CCR5 cells, which were then processed and analyzed by flow cytometry. Infection events were scored by the expression of the Thy or HSA marker, whereas the recombination events were scored by GFP expression. Examples of flow cytometry analyses from one experiment are shown in Fig. 2. Among the large numbers of infected cells, there were only few GFP+ cells; although they were rare, these GFP+ cells exhibited robust signals, and their numbers were consistently above background levels. Results from these four cell lines are summarized in Table 1. Approximately 0.1 to 0.27% of the infectious events led to the generation of the GFP+ phenotype.


Figure 2
View larger version (38K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 2. Representative flow cytometry analyses of mock-infected cells (A) and cells infected with viruses harvested from producer cells containing HIV-1 and HIV-2 proviruses (B).


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		TABLE 1. Reconstitution of gfp by recombination between HIV-1 and HIV-2 vectors

Identification of the recombinant gfp gene in GFP+ cells. Our flow cytometry analyses indicated that the GFP+ phenotype was generated at a very low frequency among the infection events. To examine whether the phenotype was the result of a reconstituted functional gfp gene, we isolated single GFP+ cell clones by cell sorting. These sorted single cell clones were expanded, and their phenotypes were further examined by flow cytometry. Cell clones that were GFP negative or positive for all three markers (HSA+/Thy+/GFP+) were discarded; cell clones that were positive for all three markers were probably generated by double infection. GFP+ cell clones were isolated from infection using viruses generated from two separate virus producer cell lines, one infected with 1-T6G and 2-H0G and the other infected with 1-H0G and 2-T6G.

To examine whether the GFP+ cell clones contained functional reconstituted gfp genes, a portion of the provirus genomes containing the gfp gene was amplified by PCR and characterized by restriction enzyme mapping and DNA sequencing (Fig. 3A and B). Vectors 1-H0G and 2-H0G carried an hsa gene and a gfp gene with the inactivating mutations located 15 nt from the AUG of gfp; this mutation also generated an HpaI site in the vector (Fig. 3A). Vector 1-T6G or 2-T6G carried a thy gene and a gfp gene with the inactivating mutation 603 nt from the AUG of gfp; this mutation also generated an SpeI site in the vector. If recombination resulted in the reconstitution of a functional gfp gene, this gene would not contain the HpaI or SpeI site (Fig. 3A). We examined 54 GFP+ cell clones, all of which contained a reconstituted gfp gene; 13 of these clones also contained a parental, mutated gfp gene in addition to the reconstituted gfp. In addition to restriction enzyme mapping, we sequenced three of the PCR fragments that did not have the HpaI or SpeI site, and the results verified that these gfp genes indeed did not contain the inactivating mutations. Therefore, the GFP+ phenotype in these cell clones was generated by recombinant proviruses with functional gfp genes. These results indicated that HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNAs were copackaged into the same virus particle to allow recombination to occur.


Figure 3
View larger version (13K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 3. Strategies used to characterize structures of recombinant proviruses. (A) Differences in restriction enzyme sites in the mutant and functional gfp genes. A functional gfp gene can be generated by recombination, and such a gene would not contain SpeI and HpaI sites. (B) Characterization of the gfp gene in the proviral genomes by PCR and restriction enzyme mapping. PCRs were performed using a primer in the IRES region and either an HIV-1-specific or an HIV-2-specific primer located in the nef region. (C) Virus-specific PCR to probe the compositions of different regions of the recombinant proviruses. Eight sets of primers detecting HIV-1 or HIV-2 LTR, gag, pol, and env sequences were used. (D) Characterization of proviral genomes by PCR and restriction enzyme mapping. Segments of the genomes were amplified by primer sets annealed to U3 and gag, gag and U3, or IRES and U3. (E) Characterization of hybrid junction sequences by DNA sequencing.

Strategies to characterize the structures of the proviruses in GFP+ cells. The reconstitution of the gfp genes demonstrated that recombination can occur within a large region of homology (588 bp) in the HIV-1 and HIV-2 genomes. We sought to determine the general structures of proviruses that conferred the GFP+ phenotype as well as to ascertain whether other recombination events occurred in the viral sequences. To examine these two experimental questions, we characterized the proviral structures within 54 GFP+ cell clones. The low sequence identity between the HIV-1 and HIV-2 genomes hinders the development of PCR primers that efficiently amplify the genomes from both viruses. Therefore, we first probed the sequence identities of various portions of the proviruses by PCR using eight sets of primers specific for various regions of the HIV-1 or HIV-2 genome (Fig. 3C). Results of these PCRs generated rough sketches of recombinant provirus sequence compositions. Using this information, we then amplified large segments of the provirus genomes by PCR and characterized these fragments by restriction enzyme mapping (Fig. 3D). Additionally, all of the junctions of hybrid sequences were verified by DNA sequencing (Fig. 3E). Data collected from these analyses were compiled to construct the general structures of the recombinant proviruses.

We observed six classes of recombinants: (i) recombinants with viral sequences from one parent and crossovers in IRES-gfp; (ii) recombinants with heterologous LTRs; (iii) recombinants with heterologous LTRs and additional deletions; (iv) a provirus with hybrid env, tat, and rev; (v) recombinants with additional LTR and nef sequences; and (vi) a recombinant with additional U3 and nef sequences. The structures and possible mechanisms that generated these recombinants are described below.

Recombinants with viral sequences from one parent and crossovers in IRES-gfp. Of the 54 GFP+ cell clones, 32 contained proviruses with viral sequences identical to that of one of the parental vectors except that the gfp genes were reconstituted by recombination. The structures of these viruses are shown in Fig. 4A as P1, P2, and P3. Except for the functional gfp genes, P1 resembled 1-H0G, whereas P2 and P3 resembled 1-T6G and 2-H0G, the parental viruses used in the experiments that yielded these recombinants. Of the 54 cell clones, 22 had P1, 6 had P2, and 4 had P3 patterns. Based on the structures of the recombinants, we propose that each recombinant was generated by two crossover events. For example, P1 is likely to be generated in the following manner (Fig. 4B). In the copackaged RNAs, DNA synthesis was initiated from HIV-1 RNA, U5-R was copied and transferred intramolecularly into the 3' end of the genome, and DNA synthesis was continued. The first crossover occurred between the two gfp-inactivating mutations to yield a reconstituted, functional gfp. The second crossover occurred in IRES so that RT switched back to the HIV-1 RNA and copied the rest of the IRES, hsa, and the remaining HIV-1 sequences. We propose that similar mechanisms generated P2 and P3, as illustrated in Fig. 4C and D.


Figure 4
View larger version (20K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 4. Recombinants with viral sequences from one of the parental viruses and crossovers in IRES-gfp. (A) General structures of three identified recombinants. (B to D) Proposed mechanisms for the generation of recombinants P1 (B), P2 (C), and P3 (D).

Hybrid viruses with LTRs from heterologous viruses. A second category of the recombinants contained the LTRs and part of the nef from one virus and the rest of the viral sequences from the other virus. Two examples of these viruses are shown in Fig. 5A as LTR insert 1 (LTR-1) and LTR-2. Of the 54 clones analyzed, 13 had LTR-1 and 1 had LTR-2 proviruses; three other clones had related structures with additional deletions (Fig. 5B). Based on the structure of LTR-1, we postulate that minus-strand DNA synthesis was initiated in HIV-2 RNA (Fig. 5C) and was transferred intramolecularly. RT continued DNA synthesis to reconstitute the HIV-2 LTR, copied HIV-2 nef and a part of gfp, and then switched templates between the two inactivating mutations to generate a functional gfp. RT proceeded to copy the rest of the HIV-1 genome, plus-strand DNA transfer occurred using the primer binding site (PBS) sequences, and DNA synthesis was completed on both strands to generate the LTR-1 structure. To further analyze the junctions of the HIV-1 and HIV-2 sequences, we amplified and sequenced a portion of the 5' LTR, the 5' untranslated region, and a portion of gag of some proviruses. As shown in Fig. 5D, the sequence junction between HIV-1 and HIV-2 is the PBS; the PBS sequences are identical in the HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains used in these experiments. The sequences confirmed that plus-strand transfer occurred using the PBS to join the HIV-2 LTR and the 5' untranslated region of the HIV-1 genome.


Figure 5
View larger version (19K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 5. Recombinants with heterologous LTRs. General structures of recombinants with heterologous LTRs (A) and recombinants with heterologous LTRs and additional deletions (B) are shown. Proposed mechanisms for the generation of the recombinants LTR-1 (C) and LTR-2 (E) are shown. (D) Partial sequence of recombinant LTR-1 near the junction of HIV-1 and HIV-2 sequences. HIV-2 sequences are shown in italic type, HIV-1 sequences are underlined, and the PBS is shown in boldface type.

DNA sequencing analyses of LTR-2 confirmed that, much like LTR-1, the PBS also bridged the junction between HIV-2 and HIV-1 sequences (data not shown). We postulate that the LTR-2 provirus was generated in a similar manner except that three template-switching events occurred in or near the gfp gene (Fig. 5E). Three other proviruses, termed LTR-del-1, LTR-del-2, and LTR-del-3 (Fig. 5B), had structures related to LTR-1 or LTR-2; however, they contained additional deletions in the thy or the env region. The deletions in the thy genes of LTR-del-1 and LTR-del-2 also explained the HSA–/Thy–/GFP+ phenotype of these cell clones.

Provirus with hybrid tat, rev, and env genes. During the analyses of progeny from producer cells containing the 1-T6G and 2-H0G parental viruses, we identified a GFP+ cell clone doubly infected with 1-T6G and a recombinant virus that contained a functional gfp, HIV-2 LTRs, and part of the HIV-2 genome but that did not have portions of HIV-2 env. To further characterize this recombinant, we amplified its genome by using a forward primer annealed to HIV-2 gag and a reverse primer annealed to HIV-2 U3; because the coinfected virus contained HIV-1 sequences, it could not be amplified by these primers. The resulting PCR fragment was mapped and sequenced; these results revealed that this recombinant contained hybrid tat, rev, and env sequences. The general structure of this recombinant is shown in Fig. 6A, and a portion of the recombination junction sequences is shown in Fig. 6B. This recombinant had LTRs, gag-pol, and the first exons of tat and rev from HIV-2; it also had a portion of HIV-1 env and the second exons of tat and rev from HIV-1, followed by thy, the IRES, and a functional gfp. DNA sequencing analyses demonstrated that there were approximately 75 bp between the HIV-1 and HIV-2 sequences (Fig. 6B) that encompassed a poly(T) stretch (approximately 67 bp) and the GCTAAACA sequence. The poly(T) stretch was most likely generated from the poly(A) tail of the RNAs. The GCTAAACA sequence can be found in both the HIV-1 (gag) and the HIV-2 (vif/vpx) genomes; however, it could also be from nonviral RNAs. We postulate two possible mechanisms by which the viral DNA could be generated; these mechanisms are illustrated in Fig. 6C and D.


Figure 6
View larger version (23K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 6. Recombinant with hybrid tat, rev, and env genes. (A) General structure of the hybrid virus. (B) Sequence near the junction of HIV-1- and HIV-2-derived genomes. (C and D) Proposed mechanisms for the generation of the hybrid virus during minus-strand DNA synthesis (C) or plus-strand DNA synthesis (D). Question marks indicate that it is uncertain whether the poly(T) sequence is directly linked with the GCTAAACA sequence.

First, this recombinant could have been generated from template switching during minus-strand DNA synthesis (Fig. 6C). Reverse transcription could initiate from the HIV-2 genome and then transfer intramolecularly to regenerate the HIV-2 LTRs; RT switched templates in gfp, avoided the two inactivating mutations, and then copied IRES, thy, and part of env in the HIV-1 RNA. RT then switched to copy a cDNA that was reverse transcribed from a poly(A) RNA, resulting in the addition of a 75-bp sequence; RT then switched back to the HIV-2 RNA and proceeded to copy the rest of the HIV-2 RNA. It is unclear whether the poly(T) sequence and the GCTAAACA sequence originated from one continuous template; hence, question marks were placed between the sequences in Fig. 6C and D.

Alternatively, this recombinant could have been generated by template switching during plus-strand DNA synthesis (Fig. 6D). In this scenario, minus-strand DNA synthesis was completed in the HIV-2 genome, and at least part of the HIV-1 RNA was reverse transcribed into minus-strand DNA. Plus-strand DNA transfer successfully occurred in the HIV-2 genome, and RT continued to synthesize plus-strand DNA using HIV-2 minus-strand DNA as a template and copied gag-pol and the 5' portion of env. Afterwards, RT switched to copy the poly(A) tail of an RNA molecule, resulting in the addition of the poly(T) and the GCTAAACA sequences; switched to using HIV-1 minus-strand DNA as a template; synthesized part of env, thy, IRES, and part of gfp; and switched back to HIV-2 minus-strand DNA to reconstitute a functional gfp. The resulting DNA had a large segment of mismatched sequence between the very 5' end of env to the IRES region. DNA repair corrected the sequences according to the plus-strand sequence and resulted in the hybrid that we observed. Therefore, this recombinant could have been generated during either minus-strand or plus-strand DNA synthesis; we could not distinguish between these two possibilities based on the structure and sequence of this recombinant.

HIV-1 proviruses with insertions of HIV-2 nef and the LTR. We isolated three clones with proviruses that had structures resembling those of HIV-1 parental virus 1-T6G but that contained a functional gfp and sequences from HIV-2 nef and an LTR inserted between gfp and the HIV-1 3' LTR. Proviruses in these three cell clones were similar but contained distinct junctions; the general structures of these proviruses are shown in Fig. 7A. Portions of the three proviruses were sequenced, and the junctions for provirus LTR insert 1 are shown in Fig. 7B. In this provirus, the gfp sequence was connected with HIV-2 nef exactly as it was in the HIV-2 vector, followed by the entire HIV-2 LTR (Fig. 7B). At the end of the HIV-2 LTR was a 37-bp sequence complementary to human tRNA3Lys, with the first 18 bp identical to the PBS of the two virus strains used in these experiments. The last two bases of this 37-bp sequence were AG, which is a short homology region shared with the last 5 bp of the gfp gene, followed by HIV-1 nef and LTR (Fig. 7B). The insertion of a complete LTR suggests that viral DNA, and not viral RNA, was the template for the inserted sequences. Furthermore, the insertion of a sequence complementary to tRNA3Lys indicated that part of the primer was copied during plus-strand DNA synthesis. Therefore, it is most likely that a recombination event during plus-strand DNA synthesis generated this recombinant. We propose that minus-strand DNA synthesis initiated at both copackaged HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNAs, intramolecular transfer occurred on both genomes, and extensions of minus-strand DNA synthesis resulted in the reconstitution of both LTRs (Fig. 7C). DNA synthesis continued in the HIV-1 genome to complete minus-strand DNA; following plus-strand DNA transfer, DNA synthesis continued to copy gag-pol, env, thy, and the IRES. During the synthesis of gfp, RT switched to the gfp gene in the HIV-2 minus-strand DNA and copied the rest of gfp, HIV-2 nef, and the HIV-2 LTR. At the end of the LTR, RT continued to copy 37 bp using the tRNA primer as a template and then switched back to the HIV-1 minus-strand DNA and copied nef and the HIV-1 LTR. The resulting DNA had a large insertion in the plus-strand DNA; DNA repair corrected the sequences according to the plus-strand DNA to generate the LTR-1 structure.


Figure 7
View larger version (18K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 7. Recombinants with insertions of HIV-2 nef and LTR sequences. (A) General structures of three identified recombinants. (B) Junction sequences of provirus LTR-1. Green type, sequence from the IRES-gfp; red type, sequence of HIV-2 nef and LTR; black type, sequence complementary to tRNA3Lys; boldface black type, sequence identical to the PBS; underlined black type, homology shared by the inserted sequence and gfp; blue type, sequence of HIV-1 nef. (C) Proposed mechanism for the generation of these recombinants.

The provirus structure of LTR insert 2 was very similar to that of LTR insert 1 except that it contained a 13-bp insert of unknown origin that connected to the HIV-1 nef sequence, suggesting that this recombinant was generated by a mechanism similar to that which produced LTR insert 1. The 13-bp sequence (TGGTGCCCCGTGT) was not in the HIV-1 or HIV-2 vector genome, but the first half resembled the first part of the PBS sequence (TGGCGCCC). It is unclear whether this 13 bp was from a single template or more than one template. LTR insert 3 contained an insertion of nef and most of the HIV-2 LTR except that the last 30 bp of U5 was absent; instead, the HIV-2 U5 sequence was directly connected to the 3' end of the gfp gene in the HIV-1 template. The transfer junction of the HIV-2 and gfp sequences shared a 4-bp (ACCG) homology, which was likely used to facilitate the transfer. Taken together, these three proviruses had similar structures, suggesting that they were generated by recombination events during plus-strand DNA synthesis.

HIV-1 provirus with insertion of HIV-2 nef and U3 sequences. We identified a provirus with a structure identical to that of parental virus strain 1-H0G except that it carried a functional gfp and an insertion containing HIV-2 nef and U3 sequences (Fig. 8A). The junction between the HIV-2 U3 sequence and the HIV-1 nef sequence shared homology of a single nucleotide (C). Although this recombinant was structurally similar to the LTR insertion proviruses shown in Fig. 7, the insertion was limited to the U3 region and did not expand to the entire LTR; thus, it is unclear whether this recombinant was generated via crossover events during plus-strand DNA synthesis. There are at least three mechanisms that could have generated this recombinant: crossover during minus-strand DNA synthesis (Fig. 8B), crossover during plus-strand DNA synthesis (Fig. 8C), or a combination of crossovers during both minus-strand and plus-strand DNA synthesis (Fig. 8D).


Figure 8
View larger version (20K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIG. 8. Recombinant with insertion of HIV-2 nef and U3 sequences. (A) General structure of the recombinant. Proposed mechanisms for the generation of the recombinant by crossover events that occurred during minus-strand DNA synthesis (B) or plus-strand DNA synthesis (C) or by a combination of minus-strand and plus-strand crossover events (D) are shown.

In summary, these results illustrate that recombination can occur between the HIV-1 and HIV-2 genomes not only in the inserted gfp marker gene but also elsewhere in the viral sequences. Therefore, these two human AIDS viruses are capable of interacting with each other genetically.


arrow
DISCUSSION
 
In this report, we sought to determine the potential for genetic interactions between HIV-1 and HIV-2. Using a surrogate marker gene present in both HIV-1 and HIV-2 vectors, we demonstrated that recombination can occur in the marker genes encoded by these two viruses. These results demonstrated that HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNAs can be copackaged into the same virion. During analyses of the proviruses, we observed that other recombination events occurred to generate chimeric viruses containing sequences from HIV-1 and HIV-2. Therefore, recombination can occur within the viral sequences as well, albeit at very low frequencies. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration that HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNAs can be copackaged into the same virus and that recombination can occur during reverse transcription to generate HIV-1/HIV-2 chimeric viruses.

Estimating the frequency of HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNA copackaging. To estimate the frequency of HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNA copackaging, we inserted a mutant gfp marker gene into each vector; the sequences of the gfp genes in all vectors were identical except for the inactivating mutations. Using similar systems, we previously showed that GFP+ phenotypes were generated in approximately 7% of the infection events when two homologous HIV-1 or two homologous HIV-2 vectors were used (11, 41). In this study, approximately 0.2% of infection events generated the GFP+ phenotype. Therefore, the appearance of the GFP+ phenotype in current system is approximately 35-fold lower than that between two homologous HIV-1 or HIV-2 viruses. At this time, technical limitations prevent the direct measurement of the frequency of HIV-1 and HIV-2 viral genome copackaging. However, we can estimate the frequency of such events, because the gfp gene was used to measure recombination and copackaging. With the assumption that the frequencies of template switching between the two gfp genes were similar in the above-mentioned systems, the copackaging of HIV-1 and HIV-2 viral RNAs should be approximately 35-fold lower than that of homologous viruses. Previously, we showed that the RNAs of homologous HIV-1 are assorted in a near-random manner and that heterozygous virions are formed efficiently (40). When two parental proviruses are expressed at similar efficiencies and assortment of RNAs is random, heterozygous virions occupy 50% of the viral population. With the above-described assumption and calculations, heterozygous virions containing copackaged HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNAs would be formed in approximately 1.4% of the viral population [(50/35)%].

Estimating the frequency of recombination between the HIV-1 and HIV-2 genomes. Previously, we used the frequency of gfp reconstitution to measure the recombination rates of homologous viruses (11, 41). However, because of the high sequence diversity between HIV-1 and HIV-2, the frequency of the GFP+ phenotype would not correctly reflect the recombination rate. Instead, the recombination frequency between these two viruses is likely to be much lower. The overall nucleotide sequence identity between the HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains that we used is 55%, and the nucleotide identities between the gag, pol, and env genes are 60%, 62%, and 50%, respectively. Our results indicate that this low sequence identity presents a barrier for the generation of chimeric viruses. A large portion of the GFP+ recombinants (32 of the 54 analyzed) did not contain chimeric viral sequences. The most common chimeric viruses that we observed were those with heterologous LTRs (17 of the 54 viruses analyzed) (Fig. 5). The largest homology stretch between the HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains that we used was a 23-bp region including the PBS. This stretch of homology facilitated successful plus-strand DNA transfer to generate recombinants with LTRs from the heterologous virus. In 5 of the 54 recombinants analyzed, we did observe recombination in the viral genomes between the two LTRs. These events involved mostly short stretches of homology in viral or cellular sequences. A correlation between reduced frequency of RT template switching and lower sequence identities of the two templates was previously shown; such switching is largely blocked when the two templates have 70% sequence homology (1). We observed far more recombination events within the gfp marker genes than within the viral genomes; this result is consistent with the reduced sequence identity and the observed template-switching event. Therefore, the recombination frequencies between HIV-1 and HIV-2 are far lower than that predicted by the GFP+ phenotype.

The insertion of the gfp gene into both viruses generated a large homology region not present in the HIV-1 and HIV-2 genomes. This homology probably played a role in the generation of recombinants with crossovers in gfp only (Fig. 4) and partially facilitated the generation of viruses with heterologous LTRs (Fig. 5). However, there is no evidence to suggest that the added gfp sequence facilitated the generation of the five viruses with hybrid sequences (Fig. 6, 7, and 8). Therefore, of the 54 proviruses that we analyzed, 5 viruses with hybrid sequences were generated from mechanisms unrelated to the inserted gfp homology. These results imply that without the added homology, 9% (5/54) of the observed copackaged viruses could generate hybrid viral genomes. We estimate that 1.4% of the viruses generated from dually infected cells had copackaged HIV-1 and HIV-2 RNAs and that approximately 0.13% (9% x 1.4%) of the viruses generated from these cells could have hybrid sequences. Therefore, only 1 in 1,000 viruses generated from coinfected cells is a recombinant with hybrid sequences.

Limitations and barriers for the generation of viable HIV-1 and HIV-2 hybrid viruses. The potential recombination between HIV-1 and HIV-2 was previously studied using a dually infected population (14). In that study, samples from dually infected patients were examined using PCR primers located in the env region, and recombination was not observed within this region in these patients. In our system, we examined events that occurred after one round of viral replication, and the selection criterion for the recombinant was the expression of a functional gfp gene. Hence, the functions of gag-pol and many other gene products required for virus replication were not selected. The viral promoter and the tat gene were selected, since gfp could be expressed from a spliced message, Rev-responsive element, and the rev gene was not selected. Most of the recombinants that we observed are probably not capable of replication on their own. Therefore, the generation of a viable chimeric virus from two genetically distinct viruses faces many requirements and barriers. The RNAs of these viruses must be copackaged together, template switching must occur during reverse transcription, and all of the components of the resulting chimeric virus must work together to generate a virus capable of replication. In this report, we have shown that copackaging is likely to be a low-frequency event, and low sequence identity is also likely to be a barrier in two aspects. First, it prevents recombination from occurring, and second, most of the recombination events observed occurred within short homology sequences, which significantly reduces the possibility of transferring to the counterpart of the copackaged genome, thereby decreasing the probability of generating a functional chimera. The low sequence identity could also present difficulties for various parts of the viral genomes working together to form a replication-competent virus. Therefore, the frequency of generating a replication-competent chimeric virus is expected to be far lower than the recombination frequency. However, phylogenetic studies of SIVs have indicated that such low-frequency events have occurred previously (5). Such chimeric HIV-1 and HIV-2 viruses have yet to be observed in the infected population. It is unclear whether the lack of observed chimeras is due to the divergence between HIV-1 and HIV-2 being too great for such an event to occur or whether such events could occur but have not yet been observed. Given the number of coinfected people, the potential for interactions between HIV-1 and HIV-2 should not be ignored.


arrow
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
We thank Anne Arthur for expert editorial help with the manuscript, Vinay K. Pathak for discussions and intellectual input throughout the project, and Vinay K. Pathak, Eric Freed, and Olga Nikolaitchik for critical reading of the manuscript. We also thank Eric Freed for plasmid pIIINL(AD8)env.

This work was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health and by the Intramural AIDS Targeted Antiviral Program of the National Institutes of Health.


arrow
FOOTNOTES
 
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: HIV Drug Resistance Program, NCI—Frederick, P.O. Box B, Building 535, Room 336, Frederick, MD 21702. Phone: (301) 846-1250. Fax: (301) 846-6013. E-mail: whu{at}ncifcrf.gov Back

{triangledown} Published ahead of print on 5 December 2007. Back


arrow
REFERENCES
 
    1
  1. An, W., and A. Telesnitsky. 2002. Effects of varying sequence similarity on the frequency of repeat deletion during reverse transcription of a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 vector. J. Virol. 76:7897-7902.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    2. 2
  2. Anderson, J. A., E. H. Bowman, and W. S. Hu. 1998. Retroviral recombination rates do not increase linearly with marker distance and are limited by the size of the recombining subpopulation. J. Virol. 72:1195-1202.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    3. 3
  3. Arien, K. K., A. Abraha, M. E. Quinones-Mateu, L. Kestens, G. Vanham, and E. J. Arts. 2005. The replicative fitness of primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) group M, HIV-1 group O, and HIV-2 isolates. J. Virol. 79:8979-8990.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    4. 4
  4. Baba, S., K. Takahashi, S. Noguchi, H. Takaku, Y. Koyanagi, N. Yamamoto, and G. Kawai. 2005. Solution RNA structures of the HIV-1 dimerization initiation site in the kissing-loop and extended-duplex dimers. J. Biochem. (Tokyo) 138:583-592.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    5. 5
  5. Bailes, E., F. Gao, F. Bibollet-Ruche, V. Courgnaud, M. Peeters, P. A. Marx, B. H. Hahn, and P. M. Sharp. 2003. Hybrid origin of SIV in chimpanzees. Science 300:1713.[Free Full Text]
    6. 6
  6. Berkowitz, R., J. Fisher, and S. P. Goff. 1996. RNA packaging. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 214:177-218.[Medline]
    7. 7
  7. Blattner, W., R. C. Gallo, and H. M. Temin. 1988. HIV causes AIDS. Science 241:515-516.[Free Full Text]
    8. 8
  8. Boyko, V., M. Leavitt, R. Gorelick, W. Fu, O. Nikolaitchik, V. K. Pathak, K. Nagashima, and W. S. Hu. 2006. Coassembly and complementation of Gag proteins from HIV-1 and HIV-2, two distinct human pathogens. Mol. Cell 23:281-287.[CrossRef][Medline]
    9. 9
  9. Browning, C. M., L. Cagnon, P. D. Good, J. Rossi, D. R. Engelke, and D. M. Markovitz. 1999. Potent inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) gene expression and virus production by an HIV-2 Tat activation-response RNA decoy. J. Virol. 73:5191-5195.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    10. 10
  10. Carr, J. K., M. O. Salminen, C. Koch, D. Gotte, A. W. Artenstein, P. A. Hegerich, D. St. Louis, D. S. Burke, and F. E. McCutchan. 1996. Full-length sequence and mosaic structure of a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolate from Thailand. J. Virol. 70:5935-5943.[Abstract]
    11. 11
  11. Chen, J., D. Powell, and W. S. Hu. 2006. High frequency of genetic recombination is a common feature of primate lentivirus replication. J. Virol. 80:9651-9658.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    12. 12
  12. Clavel, F. 1987. HIV-2, the West African AIDS virus. AIDS 1:135-140.[Medline]
    13. 13
  13. Clavel, F., M. D. Hoggan, R. L. Willey, K. Strebel, M. A. Martin, and R. Repaske. 1989. Genetic recombination of human immunodeficiency virus. J. Virol. 63:1455-1459.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    14. 14
  14. Curlin, M. E., G. S. Gottlieb, S. E. Hawes, P. S. Sow, I. Ndoye, C. W. Critchlow, N. B. Kiviat, and J. I. Mullins. 2004. No evidence for recombination between HIV type 1 and HIV type 2 within the envelope region in dually seropositive individuals from Senegal. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 20:958-963.[CrossRef][Medline]
    15. 15
  15. Duesberg, P. H. 1968. Physical properties of Rous sarcoma virus RNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 60:1511-1518.[Free Full Text]
    16. 16
  16. Dykes, C., M. Balakrishnan, V. Planelles, Y. Zhu, R. A. Bambara, and L. M. Demeter. 2004. Identification of a preferred region for recombination and mutation in HIV-1 gag. Virology 326:262-279.[CrossRef][Medline]
    17. 17
  17. Fan, H. 1997. Leukemogenesis by Moloney murine leukemia virus: a multistep process. Trends Microbiol. 5:74-82.[Medline]
    18. 18
  18. Freed, E. O., G. Englund, and M. A. Martin. 1995. Role of the basic domain of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 matrix in macrophage infection. J. Virol. 69:3949-3954.[Abstract]
    19. 19
  19. Gao, F., E. Bailes, D. L. Robertson, Y. Chen, C. M. Rodenburg, S. F. Michael, L. B. Cummins, L. O. Arthur, M. Peeters, G. M. Shaw, P. M. Sharp, and B. H. Hahn. 1999. Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes. Nature 397:436-441.[CrossRef][Medline]
    20. 20
  20. Gao, F., D. L. Robertson, S. G. Morrison, H. Hui, S. Craig, J. Decker, P. N. Fultz, M. Girard, G. M. Shaw, B. H. Hahn, and P. M. Sharp. 1996. The heterosexual human immunodeficiency virus type 1 epidemic in Thailand is caused by an intersubtype (A/E) recombinant of African origin. J. Virol. 70:7013-7029.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    21. 21
  21. George, J. R., C. Y. Ou, B. Parekh, K. Brattegaard, V. Brown, E. Boateng, and K. M. De Cock. 1992. Prevalence of HIV-1 and HIV-2 mixed infections in Cote d'Ivoire. Lancet 340:337-339.[CrossRef][Medline]
    22. 22
  22. Gottlieb, G. S., P. S. Sow, S. E. Hawes, I. Ndoye, A. M. Coll-Seck, M. E. Curlin, C. W. Critchlow, N. B. Kiviat, and J. I. Mullins. 2003. Molecular epidemiology of dual HIV-1/HIV-2 seropositive adults from Senegal, West Africa. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 19:575-584.[CrossRef][Medline]
    23. 23
  23. Hemelaar, J., E. Gouws, P. D. Ghys, and S. Osmanov. 2006. Global and regional distribution of HIV-1 genetic subtypes and recombinants in 2004. AIDS 20:W13-W23.[Medline]
    24. 24
  24. Hirsch, V. M., R. A. Olmsted, M. Murphey-Corb, R. H. Purcell, and P. R. Johnson. 1989. An African primate lentivirus (SIVsm) closely related to HIV-2. Nature 339:389-392.[CrossRef][Medline]
    25. 25
  25. Hoxie, J. A., C. C. LaBranche, M. J. Endres, J. D. Turner, J. F. Berson, R. W. Doms, and T. J. Matthews. 1998. CD4-independent utilization of the CXCR4 chemokine receptor by HIV-1 and HIV-2. J. Reprod. Immunol. 41:197-211.[CrossRef][Medline]
    26. 26
  26. Hu, W. S., and H. M. Temin. 1990. Genetic consequences of packaging two RNA genomes in one retroviral particle: pseudodiploidy and high rate of genetic recombination. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:1556-1560.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    27. 27
  27. Hu, W. S., and H. M. Temin. 1990. Retroviral recombination and reverse transcription. Science 250:1227-1233.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    28. 28
  28. Jetzt, A. E., H. Yu, G. J. Klarmann, Y. Ron, B. D. Preston, and J. P. Dougherty. 2000. High rate of recombination throughout the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genome. J. Virol. 74:1234-1240.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    29. 29
  29. Kannangai, R., R. V. Shaji, S. Ramalingam, M. V. Jesudason, O. C. Abraham, R. George, A. P. Shanmugam, D. H. Schwartz, and G. Sridharan. 2003. HIV-2 subtype circulating in India (south). J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 33:219-222.[CrossRef][Medline]
    30. 30
  30. Kaye, J. F., and A. M. Lever. 1998. Nonreciprocal packaging of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and type 2 RNA: a possible role for the p2 domain of Gag in RNA encapsidation. J. Virol. 72:5877-5885.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    31. 31
  31. Kung, H. J., J. M. Bailey, N. Davidson, M. O. Nicolson, and R. M. McAllister. 1975. Structure, subunit composition, and molecular weight of RD-114 RNA. J. Virol. 16:397-411.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    32. 32
  32. Le Guenno, B., P. Jean, M. Peghini, P. Griffet, P. Seignot, P. Barabe, M. D. Ball, A. Montalegre, B. N'Diaye, M. Guiraud, et al. 1987. Increasing HIV-2-associated AIDS in Senegal. Lancet ii:972-973.
    33. 33
  33. Levy, D. N., G. M. Aldrovandi, O. Kutsch, and G. M. Shaw. 2004. Dynamics of HIV-1 recombination in its natural target cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 101:4204-4209.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    34. 34
  34. Li, Q. X., and H. Fan. 1990. Combined infection by Moloney murine leukemia virus and a mink cell focus-forming virus recombinant induces cytopathic effects in fibroblasts or in long-term bone marrow cultures from preleukemic mice. J. Virol. 64:3701-3711.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    35. 35
  35. Luban, J., and S. P. Goff. 1991. Binding of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) RNA to recombinant HIV-1 Gag polyprotein. J. Virol. 65:3203-3212.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    36. 36
  36. Mansky, L. M., and H. M. Temin. 1995. Lower in vivo mutation rate of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 than that predicted from the fidelity of purified reverse transcriptase. J. Virol. 69:5087-5094.[Abstract]
    37. 37
  37. Mikkelsen, J. G., A. H. Lund, K. D. Kristensen, M. Duch, M. S. Sorensen, P. Jorgensen, and F. S. Pedersen. 1996. A preferred region for recombinational patch repair in the 5' untranslated region of primer binding site-impaired murine leukemia virus vectors. J. Virol. 70:1439-1447.[Abstract]
    38. 38
  38. Morner, A., A. Bjorndal, J. Albert, V. N. Kewalramani, D. R. Littman, R. Inoue, R. Thorstensson, E. M. Fenyo, and E. Bjorling. 1999. Primary human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) isolates, like HIV-1 isolates, frequently use CCR5 but show promiscuity in coreceptor usage. J. Virol. 73:2343-2349.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    39. 39
  39. Mukherjee, S., H. L. Lee, Y. Ron, and J. P. Dougherty. 2006. Proviral progeny of heterodimeric virions reveal a high crossover rate for human immunodeficiency virus type 2. J. Virol. 80:12402-12407.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    40. 40
  40. Rhodes, T., H. Wargo, and W. S. Hu. 2003. High rates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 recombination: near-random segregation of markers one kilobase apart in one round of viral replication. J. Virol. 77:11193-11200.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    41. 41
  41. Rhodes, T. D., O. Nikolaitchik, J. Chen, D. Powell, and W. S. Hu. 2005. Genetic recombination of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in one round of viral replication: effects of genetic distance, target cells, accessory genes, and lack of high negative interference in crossover events. J. Virol. 79:1666-1677.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    42. 42
  42. Sambrook, J., E. F. Fritsch, and T. Maniatis. 1989. Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual, 2nd ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
    43. 43
  43. Sattentau, Q. J., P. R. Clapham, R. A. Weiss, P. C. Beverley, L. Montagnier, M. F. Alhalabi, J. C. Gluckmann, and D. Klatzmann. 1988. The human and simian immunodeficiency viruses HIV-1, HIV-2 and SIV interact with similar epitopes on their cellular receptor, the CD4 molecule. AIDS 2:101-105.[Medline]
    44. 44
  44. Van Heuverswyn, F., and M. Peeters. 2007. The Origins of HIV and implications for the global epidemic. Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 9:338-346.[CrossRef][Medline]
    45. 45
  45. Wiktor, S. Z., J. N. Nkengasong, E. R. Ekpini, G. T. Adjorlolo-Johnson, P. D. Ghys, K. Brattegaard, O. Tossou, T. J. Dondero, K. M. De Cock, and A. E. Greenberg. 1999. Lack of protection against HIV-1 infection among women with HIV-2 infection. AIDS 13:695-699.[CrossRef][Medline]
    46. 46
  46. Yee, J. K., A. Miyanohara, P. LaPorte, K. Bouic, J. C. Burns, and T. Friedmann. 1994. A general method for the generation of high-titer, pantropic retroviral vectors: highly efficient infection of primary hepatocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91:9564-9568.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
    47. 47
  47. Zhuang, J., A. E. Jetzt, G. Sun, H. Yu, G. Klarmann, Y. Ron, B. D. Preston, and J. P. Dougherty. 2002. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 recombination: rate, fidelity, and putative hot spots. J. Virol. 76:11273-11282.[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Journal of Virology, February 2008, p. 1923-1933, Vol. 82, No. 4
0022-538X/08/$08.00+0     doi:10.1128/JVI.01937-07
Copyright © 2008, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.



This article has been cited by other articles:

  • Onafuwa-Nuga, A., Telesnitsky, A. (2009). The Remarkable Frequency of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Genetic Recombination. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 73: 451-480 [Abstract] [Full Text]  

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowReprints and Permissions
Right arrow Copyright Information
Right arrow Books from ASM Press
Right arrow MicrobeWorld
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Motomura, K.
Right arrow Articles by Hu, W.-S.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Motomura, K.
Right arrow Articles by Hu, W.-S.

Copyright © 2009 by the American Society for Microbiology.   For an alternate route to Journals.ASM.org, visit: http://intl-journals.asm.org | More Info»